Kobyakova O.S. ¹, Deev I.A.¹, Kulikov E.S.¹, Starovoitova E.A.¹, Kirillova N.A.¹, Boikov V.A.^1,2, Fedosenko S.V.¹, Selivanova N.V.^3
1 Siberian State Medical University, Tomsk
²Department of Health of the Tomsk region, Tomsk
³Zyryansky district Hospital, Tomsk region

Abstract. Smoking as a leading risk factor for chronic non-communicable diseases associated with high levels of morbidity and mortality remains a challenge to the modern healthcare.

Despite thoroughly studied mechanisms of pathological impacts of cigarette smoke and its consequences, tobacco dependence treatment is one of the major objectives of preventive medicine.

Demonstrating consequences of tobacco smoke exposure to healthy smokers including: decreased pulmonary function including increased "lung age" may reinforce motivational counseling and increase effects of behavioral techniques for smoking cessation.

Spirometry provides for early diagnosis of chronic obstructive lung disease. Therefore, pulmonary function test should be used for examining smokers to detect early signs of diseases, and, in combination with other methods, to effectively motivate smokers during smoking cessation counseling.

Keywords: smoking; smoking cessation motivation; lung function in smoking; smoking cessation.

References

1. Gambaryan M.G., Kalinina A.M. Okazanie meditsinskoy pomoshchi po profilaktike i otkazu ot kureniya. Metodicheskie rekomendatsii [Medical care for the prevention and smoking cessation. Guidelines]. Moscow; 2012. 43p. (In Russian).
2. Kulikov E.S., Ogorodova L.M., Belevskiy A.S., Petrovskiy F.I., Chuchalin A.G. Effektivnost' strategiy dostizheniya i podderzhaniya kontrolya nad bronkhial'noy astmoy v usloviyakh real'noy klinicheskoy praktiki: dannye mnogotsentrovogo issledovaniya STRELA-AST [The effectiveness of strategies to achieve and maintain asthma control in clinical practice: data of a multicenter study STRELA-AST]. Pul'monologiya 2010; (1): 80-86. (In Russian).
3. Oganov R.G., Maslennikova G.Ya. Epidemiyu serdechno-sosudistykh zabolevaniy mozhno ostanovit' usileniem profilaktiki [The epidemic of cardiovascular disease can be stopped by increased prevention]. Profilakticheskaya meditsina 2009; 12(6): 3-7. (In Russian).
4. Ogorodova L.M., Kobyakova O.S., Petrovskiy F.I., Smolenov I.V., Rebrov A.P., Punin A.A., et al. Novye podkhody k vedeniyu patsientov s tyazheloy nekontroliruemoy bronkhial'noy astmoy (rezul'taty otkrytogo mnogotsentrovogo randomizirovannogo issledovaniya "BRILLIANT") [New approaches to the management of patients with severe uncontrolled asthma (results of an open multicenter randomized trial "BRILLIANT")]. Allergologiya 2002; (1): 3-12. (In Russian).
5. Ogorodova L.M., Petrovskiy F.I., Korostovtsev D.S., Alikova O.A., Kazakevich N.V., Lyyurova T.M., et al. Tyazhelaya bronkhial'naya astma u detey: rezul'taty mnogotsentrovogo natsional'nogo issledovaniya "NABAT" [Severe asthma in children: results of a multicenter national study "NABAT"]. Allergologiya 2004; (2): 1-9. (In Russian).
6. Sakharova G.M., Antonov N.S. Okazanie pomoshchi po otkazu ot tabaka v terapevticheskoy praktike: uchebnoe posobie [Assistance in tobacco cessation in therapeutic practice: a textbook]. Moscow; 2010. 64p. (In Russian).
7. Chuchalin A.G., editor. Pul'monologiya: klinicheskie rekomendatsii [Pulmonology: clinical guidelines]. Moscow: GEOTAR-Media; 2011. 336p. (In Russian).
8. Anthonisen NR, Connett JE, Kiley JP, Altose MD, Bailey WC, Buist AS, et al. Effects of smoking intervention and the use of an inhaled anticholinergic bronchodilator on the rate of decline of FEV1. The Lung Health Study. JAMA 1994;272(19):1497–1505.
9. Anthonisen NR, Skeans MA, Wise RA, Manfreda J, Kanner RE, Connett JE. The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2005;142(4):233–239.
10. Arcari A, Magnacca S, Bracone F, Costanzo S, Persichillo M, Di Castelnuovo A, et al. Relation between pulmonary function and 10-year risk for cardiovascular disease among healthy men and women in Italy: the Moli-sani Project. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2013 Oct;20(5):862-871.
11. Ben Mdalla S, Ben Saad H, Ben Mansour N, Rouatbi B, Ben Esseghair M, Mezghani S, et al. The announcement of the lung age it is a motivation to quit smoking? Tunis Med 2013 Aug-Sep;91(8-9):521-526.
12. Ben Saad H, Khemis M, Bougmiza I, Prefaut C, Aouina H, Mrizek N, et al. Spirometric profile of narghile smokers. Rev Mal Respir 2011 Sep;28(7):e39-51.
13. Blomstrand P, Ekedahl S, Schmekel B. Bronchial Responsiveness to Dry Air Hyperventilation in Smokers May Predict Decline in Airway Status Using Indirect Methods. Lung 2013;191(2):183-190.
14. Bohadana AB, Nilsson F, Westin A, Martinet N, Martinet Y. Smoking cessation - but not smoking reduction - improves the annual decline in FEV1 in occupationally exposed workers. Respir Med 2006 Aug;100(8):1423-1430.
15. Borrill ZL, Roy K, Vessey RS, Woodcock AA, Singh D. Non-invasive biomarkers and pulmonary function in smokers. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2008;3(1):171-183.
16. Buffels J, Degryse J, Decramer M, Heyrman J. Spirometry and smoking cessation advice in general practice: a randomized clinical trial. Respir Med 2006 Nov;100(11):2012-2017.
17. Chatzimicael A, Tsalkidis A, Cassimos D, Gardikis S, Spathopoulos D, Tripsianis GA, et al. Effect of passive smoking on lung function and respiratory infection. Indian J Pediatr 2008;75(4):335-340.
18. Clark H, Palaniyar N, Strong P, Edmondson J, Hawgood S, Reid KB. Surfactant protein D reduces alveolar macrophage apoptosis in vivo. J Immunol 2002 Sep 15;169(6):2892-2899.
19. Clotet J, Gómez-Arbonés X, Ciria C, Albalad JM. Spirometry is a good method for detecting and monitoring chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in high-risk smokers in primary health care. Arch Bronconeumol 2004 Apr;40(4):155-159.
20. Clotet J, Real J, Lorente I, Fuentes A, Paredes E, Ciria C. Spirometry as method of screening and intervention in high- risk smokers in primary care. Aten Primaria 2012 Jun;44(6):328-334.
21. Connett JE, Murray RP, Buist AS, Wise RA, Bailey WC, Lindgren PG, et al. Changes in smoking status affect women more than men: results of the Lung Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 2003;157(11):973–979.
22. Curjuric I, Imboden M, Adam M, Bettschart RW, Gerbase MW, Künzli N, et al. Serum bilirubin is associated with lung function in a Swiss general population sample. Eur Respir J 2014 May;43(5):1278-1288.
23. Doll R, Hill AB. Mortality in relation to smoking: ten years' observations of british doctors. Br Med J 1964 May 30;1(5395):1399-1410.
24. Ezzati M, Lopez AD. Estimates of global mortality attributable to smoking in 2000. Lancet. 2003;362(9387):847–852.
25. Fernández JA, Prats JM, Artero JV, Mora AC, Fariñas AV, Espinal A, et al. Systemic inflammation in 222.841 healthy employed smokers and nonsmokers: white blood cell count and relationship to spirometry. Tob Induc Dis 2012 May 21;10(1):7.
26. Glader P, von Wachenfeldt K, Löfdahl CG. Systemic CD4+ T-cell activation is correlated with FEV1 in smokers. Respir Med 2006 Jun;100(6):1088-1093.
27. Hoffmeyer F, Harth V, Bunger J, Bruning T, Raulf-Heimsoth M. Leukotriene B4, 8-iso-prostaglandin F2 alpha, and pH in exhaled breath condensate from asymptomatic smokers. J Physiol Pharmacol 2009;60 Suppl 5:57-60.
28. Irizar-Aramburu MI, Martínez-Eizaguirre JM, Pacheco-Bravo P, Diaz-Atienza M, Aguirre-Arratibel I, Peña-Peña MI, et al. Effectiveness of spirometry as a motivational tool for smoking cessation: a clinical trial, the ESPIMOAT study. BMC Fam Pract 2013;14:185.
29. Khan A, Shabbir K, Ansari JK, Zia N. Comparison of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) among asymptomatic smokers and non-smokers. J Pak Med Assoc. 2010;60(3):209-213.
30. Klaassen EM, van de Kant KD, Soeteman M, Damoiseaux J, van Eys G, Stobberingh EE, et al. CD14/Toll-like receptors interact with bacteria and regulatory T-cells in the development of childhood asthma. Eur Respir J 2014;44(3):799-802.
31. Kohansal R, Martinez-Camblor P, Agustí A, Buist AS, Mannino DM, Soriano JB. The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction revisited: an analysis of the Framingham offspring cohort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009 Jul 1;180(1):3-10.
32. Kostikas K, Minas M, Nikolaou E, Papaioannou AI, Liakos P, Gougoura S, et al. Secondhand smoke exposure induces acutely airway acidification and oxidative stress. Respir Med 2013 Feb;107(2):172-179.
33. Kotz D, Wesseling G, Aveyard P, van Schayck OC. Smoking cessation and development of respiratory health in smokers screened with normal spirometry. Respir Med 2011 Feb;105(2):243-249.
34. Kunisaki KM, Niewoehner DE, Singh RJ, Connett JE. Vitamin D status and longitudinal lung function decline in the Lung Health Study. Eur Respir J 2011 Feb;37(2):238-43.
35. Lange NE, Sparrow D, Vokonas P, Litonjua AA. Vitamin D deficiency, smoking, and lung function in the Normative Aging Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012 Oct 1;186(7):616-621.
36. Lederer DJ, Enright PL, Kawut SM, Hoffman EA, Hunninghake G, van Beek EJ, et al. Cigarette smoking is associated with subclinical parenchymal lung disease: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)-lung study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;180(5):407-414.
37. Lee PN, Fry JS. Systematic review of the evidence relating FEV1 decline to giving up smoking. BMC Med 2010 Dec 14;8:84.
38. Leuppi JD, Miedinger D, Chhajed PN, Buess C, Schafroth S, Bucher HC, et al. Quality of spirometry in primary care for case finding of airway obstruction in smokers. Respiration 2010;79(6):469-474.
39. Lindberg A, Larsson LG, Rönmark E, Jonsson AC, Larsson K, Lundbäck B. Decline in FEV1 in relation to incident chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in a cohort with respiratory symptoms. COPD 2007;4(1):5-13.
40. Louhelainen N, Rytilä P, Haahtela T, Kinnula VL, Djukanović R. Persistence of oxidant and protease burden in the airways after smoking cessation. BMC Pulm Med 2009 May 27;9:25.
41. Martin-Lujan F, Piñol-Moreso JL, Martin-Vergara N, Basora-Gallisa J, Pascual-Palacios I, Sagarra-Alamo R, et al. Effectiveness of a structured motivational intervention including smoking cessation advice and spirometry information in the primary care setting: the ESPITAP study. BMC Public Health 2011;11:859.
42. Masuko H, Sakamoto T, Kaneko Y, Iijima H, Naito T, Noguchi E, et al. Lower FEV1 in non-COPD, nonasthmatic subjects: association with smoking, annual decline in FEV1, total IgE levels, and TSLP genotypes. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2011;6:181-189.
43. McClure JB, Ludman EJ, Grothaus L, Pabiniak C, Richards J. Impact of spirometry feedback and brief motivational counseling on long-term smoking outcomes: a comparison of smokers with and without lung impairment. Patient Educ Couns 2010;80(2):280-283.
44. Miedinger D, Linz A, Praehauser C, Chhajed PN, Buess C, Schafroth Török S, et al. Patient-reported respiratory symptoms and pre-bronchodilator airflow limitation among smokers in Switzerland. Prim Care Respir J 2010 Jun;19(2):163-169.
45. Miller MR, Thinggaard M, Christensen K, Pedersen OF, Sigsgaard T. Best lung function equations for the very elderly selected by survival analysis. Eur Respir J 2014;43(5):1338-1346.
46. Moré JM, Voelker DR, Silveira LJ, Edwards MG, Chan ED, Bowler RP. Smoking reduces surfactant protein D and phospholipids in patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. BMC Pulm Med. 2010 Oct 25;10:53.
47. Morris JF, Temple W. Spirometric "lung age" estimation for motivating smoking cessation. Prev Med 1985 Sep;14(5):655-662.
48. Moshammer H, Hoek G, Luttmann-Gibson H, Neuberger MA, Antova T, Gehring U, et al. Parental smoking and lung function in children: an international study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006 Jun 1;173(11):1255-1263.
49. Nagelmann A, Tonnov Ä, Laks T, Sepper R, Prikk K. Lung dysfunction of chronic smokers with no signs of COPD. COPD 2011 Jun;8(3):189-95.
50. Oh HY, Lee HS, Lee SW, Shim KW, Chun H, Kim JY. The association of lung age with smoking status in korean men. Korean J Fam Med 2014 Jan;35(1):35-41.
51. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Boulenguez C, Sobaszek A, Edme JL, Furon D. Morphologic effects of cigarette smoking on airways and pulmonary parenchyma in healthy adult volunteers: CT evaluation and correlation with pulmonary function tests. Radiology 1993;186:107–115.
52. Rose G, Colwell L. Randomised controlled trial of anti-smoking advice: final (20 year) results. J Epidemiol Community Health 1992 Feb;46(1):75-77.
53. Sansores RH, Ramírez-Venegas A, Hernández-Zenteno R, Mayar-Maya ME, Pérez-Bautista OG, Velázquez Uncal M. Prevalence and diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease among smokers at risk. A comparative study of case-finding vs. screening strategies. Respir Med 2013 Apr;107(4):580-586.
54. Siedlinski M, Postma DS, Boer JM, van der Steege G, Schouten JP, Smit HA, et al. Level and course of FEV1 in relation to polymorphisms in NFE2L2 and KEAP1 in the general population. Respir Res 2009 Aug 11;10:73.
55. Sippel JM, Osborne ML, Bjornson W, Goldberg B, Buist AS. Smoking cessation in primary care clinics. J Gen Intern Med 1999 Nov;14(11):670-676.
56. Spata J, Kelsberg G, Safranek S. Clinical inquiries. Does office spirometry improve quit rates in smokers? J Fam Pract 2010;59(10):593-594.
57. Stratelis G, Fransson SG, Schmekel B, Jakobsson P, Mölstad S. High prevalence of emphysema and its association with BMI: a study of smokers with normal spirometry. Scand J Prim Health Care 2008;26(4):241-247.
58. Suárez López de Vergara RG, Galván Fernández C, Oliva Hernández C, Doménech Martínez E, Dorta Delgado JM, Dorta Suárez M. Lung function and exposure to tobacco smoke among adolescents. An Pediatr (Barc) 2007 Dec;67(6):559-566.
59. Sverzellati N, Calabrò E, Randi G, La Vecchia C, Marchianò A, Kuhnigk JM, et al. Sex differences in emphysema phenotype in smokers without airflow obstruction. Eur Respir J 2009 Jun;33(6):1320-1328.
60. Tashkin DP, Rennard S, Taylor Hays J, Lawrence D, Marton JP, Lee TC. Lung function and respiratory symptoms in a 1-year randomized smoking cessation trial of varenicline in COPD patients. Respir Med 2011 Nov;105(11):1682-1690.
61. Tashkin DP. Variations in FEV1 decline over time in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its implications. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013 Mar;19(2):116-124.
62. Unverdorben M, Mostert A, Munjal S, van der Bijl A, Potgieter L, Venter C, et al. Acute effects of cigarette smoking on pulmonary function. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2010;57(2-3):241-246.
63. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation: a Report of the Surgeon General vi, 130, 148, 152, 155, 164, 166. Centers for Disease Control (CDC), Office on Smoking and Health. (30 sep 1990).
64. US Department of Health and Human Services. The health benefits of smoking cessation: a report of the Surgeon General. Betheseda, MD: US Public Health Service, Office on Smoking and Health; 1990.
65. van Diemen CC, Postma DS, Siedlinski M, Blokstra A, Smit HA, Boezen HM. Genetic variation in TIMP1 but not MMPs predict excess FEV1 decline in two general population-based cohorts. Respir Res. 2011;12:57.
66. von Scheele I, Larsson K, Dahlén B, Billing B, Skedinger M, Lantz AS, et al. Toll-like receptor expression in smokers with and without COPD. Respir Med 2011 Aug;105(8):1222-1230.
67. Washko GR. Rate of decline in FEV1: is emphysema the culprit? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012 Jan 1;185(1):2-3.
68. Wilt TJ, Niewoehner D, Kane RL, MacDonald R, Joseph AM. Spirometry as a motivational tool to improve smoking cessation rates: a systematic review of the literature. Nicotine Tob Res 2007 Jan;9(1):21-32.
69. Wise RA, Enright PL, Connett JE, Anthonisen NR, Kanner RE, Lindgren P, et al. Effect of weight gain on pulmonary function after smoking cessation in the Lung Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157(3 Pt 1):866–872.
70. Young RP, Hopkins RJ, Smith M, Hogarth DK. Smoking cessation: the potential role of risk assessment tools as motivational triggers. Postgrad Med J 2010 Jan;86(1011):26-33; quiz 31-2.

Write Comment

Please keep the topic of messages relevant to the subject of the article. Personal verbal attacks will be deleted. Please don't use comments to plug your web site. Such material will be removed. Just ensure to *Refresh* your browser for a new security code to be displayed prior to clicking on the 'Send' button. Keep in mind that the above process only applies if you simply entered the wrong security code.
Name:
E-mail
Comment:
Code:*